Translation craft

Translation Craft — Chinese-English Professional Translation Knowledge Base (Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance Framework)

A Chinese-English bidirectional professional translation knowledge base grounded in Yan Fu's "Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance" (信达雅) translation theory, covering four major domains — academic, business, technical, and legal — with terminology glossaries, sentence conversion templates, and quality checklists.

Quick Start

Example user inputs:

• "Help me translate this abstract into English, academic style"
• "Translate this contract clause into Chinese"
• "Translate this technical document into Chinese, keep the terminology accurate"

Agent processing workflow:

1. Identify source and target languages
2. Identify the domain (academic / business / technical / legal)
3. Translate step by step following the three-tier Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance standard
4. Output the translation with a key terminology reference table

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1. Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance Translation Framework

1.1 Three-Tier Standard Definitions

Tier	Chinese	Meaning	How It Manifests in Translation
Faithfulness (信)	Fidelity to the source	Accurately conveys facts, data, logic, and tone of the original	Consistent terminology, accurate numbers, no negation flips, preserved causal relationships
Expressiveness (达)	Fluency and clarity	The translation reads naturally in the target language with no comprehension barriers	Word order adjustments, active/passive voice conversion, long sentence splitting, added connectives
Elegance (雅)	Stylistic refinement	The translation's style matches the register of the original, with precise and appropriate diction	Academic texts use formal written language; business uses professional phrasing; legal uses standard legal language

1.2 Translation Decision Priority

Faithfulness > Expressiveness > Elegance

When the three tiers conflict:

• Accuracy (Faithfulness) always comes first: It is better to produce a slightly stiff translation than to distort the original meaning
• Fluency (Expressiveness) comes second: Adjust word order and expression on the foundation of accuracy
• Style (Elegance) comes last: Elevate the writing style only after the first two are satisfied

1.3 General Translation Workflow

Step 1: Read the full text → Understand the main idea and context
Step 2: Identify the domain → Determine the terminology glossary and style requirements
Step 3: Translate sentence by sentence → Ensure "Faithfulness"
Step 4: Adjust word order → Achieve "Expressiveness"
Step 5: Polish the style → Pursue "Elegance"
Step 6: Back-translation check → Back-translate to verify no semantic distortion

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2. Academic Translation Standards

2.1 Core Terminology Glossary

Chinese	English	Usage Context
显著性	statistical significance	Statistical testing
自变量 / 因变量	independent variable / dependent variable	Experimental design
假设检验	hypothesis testing	Research methods
文献综述	literature review	Paper structure
研究局限性	limitations	Discussion section
实证研究	empirical study	Research type
定性分析 / 定量分析	qualitative analysis / quantitative analysis	Methodology
同行评审	peer review	Publication process
交叉验证	cross-validation	Machine learning / statistics
置信区间	confidence interval	Statistical inference
元分析	meta-analysis	Comprehensive research
随机对照试验	randomized controlled trial (RCT)	Medical / social sciences
相关性 vs 因果性	correlation vs causation	Research conclusions
可复现性	reproducibility	Research quality

2.2 Academic Sentence Conversion Templates

Chinese → English common patterns:

Chinese Expression	English Academic Expression
本文旨在探讨…	This paper aims to investigate… / This study seeks to examine…
研究结果表明…	The results indicate that… / Findings suggest that…
与前人研究一致	Consistent with prior research… / In line with previous findings…
值得注意的是	It is noteworthy that… / Notably, …
存在一定局限性	Several limitations should be acknowledged…
未来研究可以…	Future research could explore… / Further investigation is warranted…
综上所述	In summary, … / To conclude, …
如表 X 所示	As shown in Table X / As illustrated in Table X

English → Chinese common patterns:

English Expression	Chinese Academic Expression
It has been well established that…	已有大量研究证实…
The present study contributes to…	本研究对…做出了贡献
These findings have implications for…	上述发现对…具有启示意义
A growing body of literature suggests…	越来越多的文献表明…
Controlling for confounding variables…	在控制混杂变量后…

2.3 Academic Translation Guidelines

• Tense: Use past tense for methods and results (was, were, found); use present tense for general conclusions (suggests, indicates)
• Person: Prefer passive voice or "this study"; avoid "I/we" (unless the target journal permits it)
• Abbreviations: Write out the full term with the abbreviation on first occurrence, e.g., "artificial intelligence (AI)"
• Citation format: Preserve the original citation format (APA/MLA/Chicago); do not convert between styles

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3. Business Translation Standards

3.1 Core Terminology Glossary

Chinese	English	Usage Context
季度环比增长	quarter-over-quarter (QoQ) growth	Financial reports
同比增长	year-over-year (YoY) growth	Financial reports
毛利率 / 净利率	gross margin / net margin	Financial metrics
供应链	supply chain	Operations
尽职调查	due diligence	Investment & financing
股东权益	shareholders' equity	Financial statements
现金流	cash flow	Financial analysis
市盈率	price-to-earnings ratio (P/E)	Valuation
利益相关方	stakeholders	Corporate governance
战略合作伙伴关系	strategic partnership	Business cooperation
核心竞争力	core competency	Strategic analysis
品牌溢价	brand premium	Marketing
商业模式画布	Business Model Canvas	Startups / strategy
投资回报率	return on investment (ROI)	Investment analysis

3.2 Business Sentence Conversion Templates

Chinese → English:

Chinese Expression	English Business Expression
我方愿与贵方建立长期合作关系	We look forward to establishing a long-term partnership with your organization.
经双方友好协商	Following amicable negotiations between both parties, …
请予以确认	We kindly request your confirmation. / Please confirm at your earliest convenience.
随函附上…	Please find enclosed… / Attached herewith is…
就此事宜，我方立场如下	With regard to this matter, our position is as follows:

English → Chinese:

English Expression	Chinese Business Expression
We regret to inform you that…	我方遗憾地通知贵方…
Please do not hesitate to contact us.	如有任何疑问，请随时与我方联系。
We would appreciate your prompt response.	烦请贵方尽快回复，不胜感激。
Subject to the terms and conditions herein…	依据本协议条款…

3.3 Business Translation Guidelines

• Tone: Maintain polite and formal language; Chinese business correspondence tends to be more indirect and diplomatic than English
• Numbers and currency: Preserve original currency symbols; note exchange rates or equivalent values when necessary
• Company names: Use the official English name; do not translate company names independently
• Job titles: Refer to the company's official English job titles

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4. Technical Translation Standards

4.1 Core Terminology Glossary

Chinese	English	Domain
应用程序接口	API (Application Programming Interface)	Software development
容器化	containerization	DevOps
微服务架构	microservices architecture	System architecture
负载均衡	load balancing	Networking / operations
持续集成/持续部署	CI/CD (Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment)	DevOps
版本控制	version control	Development workflow
延迟 / 吞吐量	latency / throughput	Performance metrics
端到端加密	end-to-end encryption (E2EE)	Security
大语言模型	large language model (LLM)	AI
向量数据库	vector database	AI / data
检索增强生成	Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG)	AI
提示工程	prompt engineering	AI
幂等性	idempotency	System design
序列化 / 反序列化	serialization / deserialization	Data processing

4.2 Technical Translation Rules

• Do not translate code identifiers: Function names, variable names, and class names must remain as-is, e.g., getUserInfo() should not be translated
• Do not translate command-line commands: Commands like docker run and git commit must remain as-is
• Prefer abbreviations: In technical documentation, write out the full term with abbreviation on first occurrence; use the abbreviation thereafter
• Chinese technical documents: Technical terms may be kept in English with Chinese annotations in parentheses, e.g., "使用负载均衡（Load Balancing）策略"
• English technical documents: Chinese concepts can use pinyin or English paraphrases; avoid inserting Chinese characters directly

4.3 Technical Document Structure Mapping

Common Chinese Structure	Common English Structure
概述	Overview
快速开始	Quick Start / Getting Started
安装指南	Installation Guide
配置说明	Configuration
使用示例	Usage / Examples
常见问题	FAQ / Troubleshooting
更新日志	Changelog / Release Notes
参考文档	API Reference / Reference

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5. Legal Translation Standards

5.1 Core Terminology Glossary

Chinese	English	Usage Context
甲方 / 乙方	Party A / Party B	Contract parties
不可抗力	force majeure	Exemption clauses
违约责任	liability for breach of contract	Breach clauses
知识产权	intellectual property (IP)	Rights clauses
保密义务	confidentiality obligation	NDAs
争议解决	dispute resolution	Arbitration / litigation
适用法律	governing law	Applicable law
仲裁条款	arbitration clause	Dispute resolution
连带责任	joint and several liability	Liability allocation
善意第三人	bona fide third party	Contract enforceability
管辖权	jurisdiction	Court jurisdiction
损害赔偿	damages	Breach remedies
不可撤销的	irrevocable	Authorization / commitments
生效日期	effective date	Contract timeline
竞业限制	non-compete clause	Employment contracts

5.2 Legal Sentence Conversion Templates

Chinese → English:

Chinese Expression	English Legal Expression
本合同自双方签字之日起生效	This Agreement shall come into effect upon execution by both parties.
任何一方不得擅自转让本合同项下的权利义务	Neither party shall assign any rights or obligations under this Agreement without prior written consent.
本合同一式两份，双方各执一份	This Agreement is executed in duplicate, with each party retaining one copy.
如有未尽事宜，双方另行协商	Any matters not covered herein shall be resolved through mutual consultation.

English → Chinese:

English Expression	Chinese Legal Expression
Notwithstanding anything to the contrary herein…	尽管本协议有任何相反规定…
To the fullest extent permitted by law…	在法律允许的最大范围内…
The parties hereby agree as follows:	双方特此约定如下：
IN WITNESS WHEREOF…	以昭信守，双方于下述日期签署本协议。

5.3 Legal Translation Guidelines

• Precision is paramount: Legal translation demands the highest standard of faithfulness; every qualifier carries legal significance
• shall vs will: In contracts, "shall" denotes obligation while "will" denotes intent — they must not be interchanged
• Defined terms: Capitalized terms must be used consistently throughout; include a definition on first occurrence
• Numerical expressions: Monetary amounts should be expressed in both digits and words, e.g., "USD 10,000 (ten thousand US dollars)"
• No translator's notes: Legal texts should not include translator annotations; ambiguities should be escalated to legal counsel for clarification

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6. Translation Quality Checklist

6.1 General Checklist

Dimension	Checkpoints	Severity
Completeness	Are there any untranslated sentences or paragraphs?	High
Accuracy	Are numbers, dates, and proper nouns accurate?	High
Terminology consistency	Is the same term translated consistently throughout?	High
Logical relationships	Are causal, contrastive, and parallel relationships preserved?	High
Grammar	Does the translation contain any grammatical errors?	Medium
Fluency	Does it read naturally, free of "translationese"?	Medium
Formatting	Are punctuation, numbering, and indentation consistent with the original style?	Low

6.2 Back-Translation Verification Method

Back-translate the output into the source language and compare it against the original to check for semantic drift:

Original (Chinese): 该实验在控制变量条件下进行
Translation (English): The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions.
Back-translation (Chinese): 该实验在受控条件下进行
Comparison: ✅ Semantically consistent — phrasing differs slightly but meaning is accurate

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7. Agent Behavior Guidelines

7.1 Translation Output Format

For each translation task, the Agent should output in the following format:

【Domain】Academic / Business / Technical / Legal / General
【Source Language】Chinese / English
【Target Language】English / Chinese

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【Translation】
(Formal translation content)

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【Key Terminology Reference】
| Source | Translation | Notes |
|--------|------------|-------|
| … | … | … |

7.2 Operating Principles

1. Ask before translating: If the domain of the source text is unclear, ask the user first
2. Confirm terminology: When encountering polysemous technical terms, confirm the context with the user
3. Preserve uncertain items: For translations you are not confident about, provide 2–3 candidate translations with explanations of when each is appropriate
4. Add translator's notes: For content with significant cultural differences (e.g., idioms, allusions), a brief explanation may be appended after the translation
5. Reject machine-translation style: Avoid word-for-word literal translation; ensure the output conforms to natural expression in the target language

7.3 Common Translation Pitfalls

Pitfall Type	Example	Correct Approach
False friends	"actually" ≠ 实际上 (closer to 其实 / 事实上)	Choose the accurate meaning based on context
Chinglish	"give you some color to see see"	Use idiomatic English expressions
Over-paraphrasing	Completely explaining an idiom in English, losing the original flavor	Preserve the style of the original; add notes if necessary
Number traps	十亿 = 1 billion (not 10 billion)	Cross-check Chinese and English number unit conversions
Passive/active confusion	Chinese prefers active voice; English often uses passive	Adjust voice according to target language conventions
Negation transfer	"I don't think he is right" ≠ 我不认为他是对的	Translate as 我认为他不对
Missing articles (Chinese → English)	Chinese has no article system; translators often omit a/the	Check every noun phrase for required articles when translating into English
"respectively" placement	Chinese 分别 can appear anywhere; English "respectively" must go at the end	"A 和 B 分别是 X 和 Y" → "A and B are X and Y, respectively."
万/亿 conversion	万 = 10,000; 亿 = 100,000,000 — do not directly translate as million/billion	1.5 万 = 15,000; 3 亿 = 300 million; 10 亿 = 1 billion